China Foreign Affairs University，Shuting Huang(黄淑婷)

[abstract]This paper discusses some typical taboo cultures amid various countries and regions along the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road,based on the structural approach and authentic cases,providing a comprehensive summary of taboos and etiquettes for cross-cultural exchanges and transnational trade cooperations.

[key word]taboo,the Silk Road,cultural exchanges

What is”Taboo”?

The vocabulary”taboo”(also referred to as”tabu”and”tapu”)is usually transliterated as”tabu”in Chinese literal context,whose origin can be traced back to the indigenous language of Tongan Island tribes,in the South Pacific’s Polynesia.In the 18th century,when British navigator Captain Cook was exploring the Tongan Island in South Pacific,he accidentally discovered that there were numerous cultural taboos on this small island.If ordinary inhabitants violated them by accident,they would be condemned even to death.For instance,some certain items could only be approached and used by the king or chiefs.These taboos,which the locals called”tabu”in their native language,originally meant sacred and extraordinary things,were gradually extended to mean something that deserved special awe and could not be touched in certain circumstances.

Nowadays,”taboo”refers to a prohibition imposed by social custom or used as a protective measure[[1]]out of cultural prudence and respect.Deeply engrained in those distinctive civilizations,taboos are affected by multiple factors such as the economic base,political framework,cultural background,etc.No matter what taboo each civilization possesses,there remains one certain thing,that is to reflect humanity’s reverence for nature and respect for established customs.In structural perspective,it does not go unnoticed to find that taboos cover two major aspects as such:language taboos and action taboos.In general,taboo cultures include lexical taboos,religious taboos,number taboos,color taboos,pattern taboos,body language taboos,dietary taboos,time taboos,and so on.

The application of taboos in the Silk Road

In the realm of cross-cultural communication and transnational trade collaboration,getting familiar with different taboos and applying them is not an easy thing to handle.American Coca-Cola Corporation’s products exported to Saudi Arabia were confiscated due to the hexagram on their packaging.A batch of frozen chickens exported from China to Kuwait was returned since their slaughtering method violated local taboos embodied in Muslims.Chinese ladies’canvas shoes transported to Egypt were confiscated because the anti-slip pattern resembled the God’s name”Allah”.All those cases demonstrate that,once we neglect those taboos,embarrassment and misunderstandings will ensue one after another.Worse still,it may even lead to the failure of formal communication or the unpleasant end of a significant trade negotiation.

The same effect will be inflicted on the exchanges and businesses along the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road as well.Despite the fact that the Silk Road has served as a civilization passage spanning the ancient east to the energetic west,and has witnessed countless commercial,cultural and thought fusions,the taboo culture of different countries and ethnic groups is like shadows lurking among the glittering civilization stars.Although not as striking as other cultural aspects,taboos exert a profound influence on certain interactions of various nations or ethnic groups along the Belt and Road.Therefore,delving into those taboo cultures is of great significance for our understanding of multicultural coexistence and interaction,as well as for promoting harmonious and reciprocal international exchanges.

Religious Taboo

Among the three largest religions-Christianity,Islam and Buddhism stretching around the world,religion plays a pivotal role in the conservation of antique civilization and the reconstruction of ethnic ethos along the Belt and Road.The diffusion and dissemination of distinctive religions along this ancient road have engendered an abundance of taboo cultures.

Muslims,who are widely distributed along the B&R,have some stringent dietary taboos revolving around the Islam traditions.It is a fact universally acknowledged that the pork taboo is probably the most ubiquitous edict for Muslims.When interacting with Muslims in social or business workplace,it is necessary to understand and respect their pork prohibition.For instance,when providing catering services to Muslims,it is essential to ensure that all cuisines adhere to Halal requirements.Under some economic trade circumstances that involve Muslim people,one should attentively refrain from offering pork-related dishes or even broaching pork-related topics so as to avoid unnecessary misunderstandings and cultural conflicts.[[2]]Moreover,well-known Islamic religious sites such as the mosque has their own etiquettes of religious taboos.When entering a mosque,one must keep silent,maintain tidiness and dress modestly-women usually don the headscarf.Tourists and businessmen alike need to familiarize themselves with these regulations in advance and strictly abide by them.These religious taboos are an inseparable part of the Islam life and spiritual realm of Muslims.

Buddhism,derived from the Kapilavastu that is an ancient kingdom in present southern Nepal,expounds profound preachings that have also influenced countless civilization throughout the extended B&R history,not to mention the Buddhism taboos along those civilized regions.Temples and shrines,serving as sanctuaries for Buddhist practice,are strictly bound by a multitude of etiquette taboos.There is a rigid requirement especially in countries like Thailand and Myanmar that entering a temple or the Buddhist monastery demands basic silence and gravity,with no space for shouting or restlessness.Religious artifacts such as Buddhist statues should be treated with the utmost reverence and must not be touched or desecrated in a casual way.These taboos and prohibitions mirror Buddhism’s pursuit of inner cultivation and the purification of the external surroundings.

In India where the caste hierarchy and religious beliefs are intertwined,a string of distinct taboos should be taken into account when conducting cultural communications and trade cooperations with Indians.

Different Indian castes have different restrictions and taboos concerning diet,marriage,occupation,etc.,which illustrate the complicated hierarchical system and social structure in Indian society:The highest caste-Brahmins-are associated with financial and academic privileges.Brahmins often avoid eating meat,especially beef,since cows are considered the most sacred animal in Hinduism.Additionally,they are extremely particular about purity and delicacy of food.Food must be prepared and served in an exceedingly ritualistic manner to express courtesy,so any deviation from these norms is regarded as a desecration of their high-caste status.The Kshatriyas who serve as the warriors and ruling group are supposed to enjoy plentiful political honors and the power to rule the latter two castes.They possess a taboo against showing cowardice in the war and battle such that the one who has an attempt to flee from a fight is considered to violate the basic principles of their Kshatriya caste.The Vaishyas,mainly engaged in trade and commerce,face taboos related to financial dealings,such as usury,or lending money at exorbitant interest rates,which are frowned upon as that is considered to go against their culturally embedded moral values.The Shudras,the lowest caste in Indian hierarchy,have no alternative but to endure a range of discriminatory taboos.Not only are they restricted from entering temples where higher-caste people worship,but their access to higher education and certain public facilities is also extremely limited.

More strikingly,some ubiquitous animals are also the prevalent taboos as for certain countries alongside the Silk Road.Cows are regarded as consecrated and sacred in Hinduism that are prohibited from being slaughtered.Similarly,images or patterns of cattle are attached with great importance and should not be employed in inappropriate designs.A strange and interesting phenomenon could be seen on Indian streets that cows often wander freely without reigns,but vehicles and pedestrians should discreetly give way to those animals.This reverence for cows has already rooted in Indian culture,thus those who engaged in trade or cultural exchanges with Indian patterners must be aware of it.

Folk Custom Taboo

Folk custom taboos are byproducts of the long-standing folk traditions and life experiences of various countries and ethnic groups,reflecting people’s awe and respect for nature,mortality and the laws of life.

In some Arab districts of the Middle East,there are taboos regarding physical contact and body language between men and women.Intimate gestures including handshakes and hugs between the opposite genders are universally eschewed,except in cases where one is especially on intimate terms with the other,in line with local folk customs.As for business negotiations or cultural exchanges,ignorance of such gesture taboo can inadvertently lead to awkwardness or misunderstanding.When engaged in cross-border trade negotiations,interactions between male and female should be handled with extreme caution.For instance,Arab regions’inhabitants convey their friendliness by standing close to each other.In the Arab concept,close and intimate physical contact can better demonstrate their strong emotions and express sincerity and cordiality.

Russia has peculiar folk taboos concerning the custom of shaking hands in the formal settings.Shaking hands with someone across a door or straddling a threshold is considered inauspicious.This taboo concept initially originated from Russian antique folk faiths.[[3]]They reckon that their house is a space suffused with spiritual vitality and protective dynamics,the threshold where their household god resides who safeguards their family’s peace,wealth,and the happiness of each family member within the house.If two people shake hands across a door or straddle the threshold,it will disturb the established peace of the household god and disrupt the sacred aura inside the family.Thus,shaking hands that traverse the threshold will pose a potential threat,incurring displeasure and unsettlement of household gods,and lead to latent dooms that family members may fall ill or encounter other misfortunes.Russian folk legends have strengthened this concept as well:There’s a legend about a young hunter named Mikhail.Before going out hunting,despite the dissuasion of his family,he shook hands with his friend Andrei across the threshold to say farewell.As a consequence,he encountered a rare blizzard that caused him to lose his way and even lose his life during that hunting trip.This folk legend has made Russians much more convinced that shaking hands across a door or straddling the threshold will break the mysterious balance between their home and the exterior that brings about dooms and bad luck.

Colors representing a vital expression of minds and thoughts,carry profound symbolic meanings and taboos in some civilizations.In Central Asia,yellow could signify sadness or bad luck;in Hinduism,white typically represents purity and auspiciousness,while black is often relevant to misfortune.[[4]]Under such cultural background,we’d better take designing product packaging,arranging event venues,and other color factors into consideration when choosing gifts.Unwittingly violating color taboos may trigger negative associations and undermine the effectiveness of exchanges and cooperation.

Moreover,in some parts of the Middle East and most Western countries,number 13 is also a prevalent taboo.As a result,there are quite a few business activities that often steer clear of anything related to 13 when it comes to gift-giving.

Social Etiquette Taboo

Thailand,lauded as the”Land of Smiles”,renders a fascinating cultural taboo with respect to smiles.A smile in Thailand not only symbolizes joy and amicability but also plays an essential role in adhering to the fundamental professional ethics.Take the life service sector employees for instance,they are expected to unfailingly wear a smile in spite of an onerous work burden,a tricky assignment or the presence of demanding customers.To Thai,the smile is correlated to in their work ethics,which serves as a testament to their basic professionalism.However,this expression can bewilder foreigners who are unacquainted with Thai taboos.For example,a tourist might be a little bit confused when the Thai staff smile while coping with a highly demanding task;by contrast,such a reaction might seem incongruous and out of place in the West.

In those Southeast Asian countries along the Belt and Road involving Indonesia,Laos,and Cambodia,person’s head holds a position of extreme sanctity in body parts,since it is commonly considered as the dwelling home of the soul that carries the spiritual tranquility.Consequently,it is a strict taboo that we should not touch someone’s head,especially in a casual approach.Whether in a bustling market or during a playful interaction with local folks,one must be cautious to avoid this misstep.Besides,the naming and addressing taboos in these Southeast Asian countries are firmly rooted in respect for elderlies and notabilities.[[5]]Calling someone’s given name directly is often understood as a disrespectful violation of one’s ancestors,thus kinship terms are preferred and more applicable to them.In Myanmar,colleagues maintain a respectful distance by refraining from using each other’s given names in the workplace.​

Poland,another nation along the Belt and Road,attaches special importance to tablecloths.A table without a tablecloth is never complete,for a white and immaculate tablecloth is emblematic of order and formality.It signals the commencement of a formal meal,mirroring the Poles’appreciation and pursuit for a refined lifestyle.When engaging in social toast sessions with Poles,it’s crucial to respect individual Polish preferences.[[6]]Motivating someone to drink excessively,though in some cultural contexts it is regarded as an indication of sincerity and cordiality,is more often considered a bad and impolite manner towards Polish people;[[7]]instead,allowing everyone to drink at their own rhythm fosters a more pleasant and respectful atmosphere.​

In Malaysia,within the Belt and Road framework,addressing respected professionals such as teachers,doctors,and lawyers by their given names is a cultural no-no.[[8]]This,combined with the head-touching taboo in other Southeast Asian counterparts,vividly illustrates the rich tapestry of social etiquette taboos among Belt and Road countries.These cultural norms,though diverse,are all integral parts of the unique identities of these nations,deserving of our understanding and respect.​

The Historical and Realistic Underpinnings of Taboo Culture

The taboo cultures along the ancient Silk Road did not come into existence ex nihilo;instead,they stem from the substantial historical provenance and the realistic interactions.Historically,the sprouting and thriving of the Ancient Silk Road have spanned countless years,during which various cultures and ethnic groups continuously clashed and melded in the process of cultural and economic integration.Throughout the journey of this transcontinental trade route,to safeguard each civilization’s cultural distinctiveness and traditional values,the conservation and utilization of taboos should be emphasized to a certain extent.These taboo cultures are not only an affirmation of one’s own cultural identity but also crucial totems for maintaining national uniqueness and recognizability in interactions with other civilizations.

From a realistic standpoint,the existence of taboo culture is a rewarding approach to upholding traditional order and social stability.Immersing in the multicultural milieu of the Silk Road,diverse cultures and beliefs intermingle,which can easily give rise to contradictions and conflicts.As behavioral norms and regulations,taboo cultures help regulate people’s behaviors,preventing conflicts and misunderstandings stemming from cultural differences and thus promoting harmonious coexistence among different cultures.

The Practical Significance of Taboo along the Silk Road

In light of recent vivid practices of the Belt and Road Initiative,the taboo acts as a pivotal role in promoting cross-cultural exchanges and understandings.According to official statistics,there are approximately 50 national common languages and over 200 ethnic languages along the Belt and Road.If taboos are violated during language communication,misunderstandings may arise and may affect cultural understanding and cooperation.Evidently,taboos hold significant importance in cultural exchanges.Respecting and understanding taboo cultures is the cornerstone of cross-cultural exchange.When we gain an in-depth understanding of the taboo cultures of different countries and ethnic groups,we can communicate more effectively and avoid embarrassment and misunderstandings caused by cultural disparities.By respecting taboo cultures,we can showcase our cultural sophistication and inclusive spirit,thereby earning the trust and respect of others and creating a conducive atmosphere for cross-cultural exchange.

Another benefit of taboo cultures is that they could facilitate international trade and cooperation.One instance of this benefit can be seen in a transnational cooperation between a Chinese company and a local firm in Malaysia in 2018.The Chinese company was involved in a large-scale infrastructure project in Malaysia,aiming to build a new highway.When the initial plans were being made,the Chinese project team did not consider the local cultural taboos.In Malaysia,certain areas are considered sacred according to local Islamic and indigenous beliefs.Some of the proposed routes for the highway passed through such areas,which immediately sparked concerns among the local community.This situation could have led to significant delays or even the cancellation of the project,causing huge economic losses for both sides.However,upon realizing the issue,the Chinese company took immediate action:They invited local cultural experts and religious leaders to consult.The local experts pointed out the specific taboos related to the land,such as not disturbing the spirits of the ancestors in certain burial grounds and respecting the sanctity of areas associated with traditional religious ceremonies.The Chinese company then adjusted the project plans so that they rerouted the highway to avoid the taboo areas.The successful implementation of this project not only brought economic benefits to the Chinese company but also promoted local economic development in Malaysia.It created job opportunities for the local population,improved transportation infrastructure,and boosted regional economic integration.The project was completed on schedule in 2021,with a total investment of about$500 million.It is estimated that in the first year of operation,the improved transportation network increased local trade volume by 20%and contributed to a 5%growth in the local GDP in the areas along the highway.This case shows that by respecting taboos,economic cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative can be effectively promoted,bringing about mutual benefit and win-win results for all parties involved.

From a macro perspective,the preservation of taboo cultures is also the branch of protection and inheritance of humanity cultural heritage.As the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO)has consistently emphasized,cultural heritage is the common wealth of all humanity,thus respecting cultural taboos is an essential part of protecting this heritage.UNESCO representatives have pointed out that under the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative,respecting taboos helps maintain the authenticity and integrity of cultural heritage.For instance,cultural taboos often restrict actions that could potentially damage tangible cultural heritages such as ancient architecture and historical artifacts.By adhering to these taboos,the risk of accidental or intentional destruction is reduced to a larger degree.When people respect the taboos of different regions along the Belt and Road,they are virtually safeguarding the unique cultural identities associated with these intangible heritages.This not only enriches global cultural diversity but also strengthens the sense of identity and belonging for local communities,as UNESCO has always advocated for in its mission to protect cultural heritage worldwide.

Strategies and Suggestions for Navigating Taboos along the B&R

Firstly,it is urgent to strengthen our multicultural education and cross-border disciplinary training.By organizing cultural education initiatives,offering relevant courses and training programs,people can be educated about the taboo cultures of different countries and ethnic groups,cultivating their cross-cultural awareness and capabilities.Prior to international exchanges and business activities,relevant personnel can undergo targeted training to familiarize themselves with the cultural background and taboo customs of the destination,laying the groundwork for smooth exchanges.

Secondly,adopting attitudes of respect and inclusiveness in the aspect of taboos is also an indispensable part.Both individuals and nations should respect the taboo cultures of different countries and ethnic groups,approaching the existence of multiculturalism with an equal and open mindset.When confronted with taboos that diverge from one’s own cultural beliefs,they should not be readily dismissed or ignored,but rather be embraced with understanding and inclusiveness,fostering mutual understanding and friendship.

More crucially,we are recommended to establish effective communication and negotiation mechanisms that traverse different taboo barriers.When issues arise due to differences in taboo cultures,both parties should communicate and negotiate promptly to seek common solutions.Simultaneously,the international community can also found effective platforms to promote cultural exchanges and cooperation among different countries and ethnic groups.

In the long historical annals of the international Silk Road,each taboo culture is a unique gem,and they collectively form a rich and vibrant cultural panorama along the Silk Road.In the current increasingly globalized world,let us approach these taboo cultures with respect and inclusiveness.By implementing proactive strategies and measures,we can promote harmonious coexistence and cooperative exchanges among different cultures,jointly propel the prosperity and development of the international Silk Road and enable this ancient route of civilization to shine even more resplendently in today’s changing and turbulent era.

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1. [] The explanations from Merriam-Webster are retrieved from its official website, Merriam-Webster. “Taboo.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/taboo. Accessed [2025/3/9]. ↑
2. [] “Differences in Taboo Cultures between China and the West and Cross – Cultural Communication Mistakes Caused Thereby” [EB/OL]. Yuanchuangliwen Dang. Internet Document Resources (https://max.book118). February 6, 2025. ↑
3. [] “Russianness and Non – Russianness: On Nabokov and the Russian Literary Tradition” [EB/OL]. Yuanchuangliwen Dang. Internet Document Resources (https://max.book118). February 6, 2025. ↑
4. [] Shi Xinhua. “Cultural Connotations in English and Chinese Color Words.” Journal of China Three Gorges University (Humanities & Social Sciences), 2008, 30(4). ↑
5. [] Xu Zongbi, Gao Hui. “An Analysis of the Classification of Etiquettes in ASEAN Countries.” Journal of Kunming Metallurgy College, 2013, 29(2). ↑
6. [] Luo Wenjun. Migrant Workers’ Etiquette – IV. Western Customs and Taboos. Southwest Jiaotong University Press. December 1, 2008；Merriam – Webster. “Taboo.” Merriam – Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam – Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/taboo. Accessed March 9, 2025. ↑
7. [] Le Yun, Jin Guitao. “A Survey and Study on Language Taboos in Southeast Asian Countries along the Belt and Road.” Literature Education (Lower), 2018(05). ↑
8. [] “Traveling Abroad: Sri Lanka – As Brilliant as You” [EB/OL]. Yuanchuangliwen Dang. Internet Document Resources (https://max.book118). February 6, 2025. ↑